The Relationship Between Grammar And Language English Language Essay

The Relationship Between Grammar And Language English Language Essay The relationship between grammar and language helps in understanding the Chomskian principle of transformational grammar. David W. Carroll views grammar as a description of a persons linguistic knowledge. Language is considered to be an infinite set of well formulated sentences and it can be deduced by grammar, like that of mathematics or logic. Hence grammars are the theories of language composed of hypotheses of the structure of some part of the language. Chomsky suggests three criteria about the theory of language. First criterion is known as observational adequacy. It is applied in several levels of language in which grammar defines, what is and what is not an acceptable sequence in the language. At the other level grammar should have rules that generate grammatical sentence. The second criterion is the descriptive adequacy which indicates that grammar specifies the sequence in a language. Grammar should also explain how it relates with sentences which have the same or opposite meaning .The third criterion is the explanatory adequacy. Chomsky views that it is theoretically possible for a number of grammars, all based on different principles to attain the other two forms of adequacy and determines that the best descriptively adequate grammar pertains to the language acquisition in children. He suggests that the child learning a language is presented with samples of the language and must determine the grammar from the samples. Chomsky notes that children choose one particular grammar from the incoming data consistent with a number of grammars. Hence this implies that there are certain innate language constraints enable the child to deduce the correct grammar. The final level of adequacy goes beyond the ability to explain to describe patterns in a particular language; instead, it involves the ability to explain the role of linguistic universals in language acquisition. These theories played a significant role in the development of linguistic theories. Chomsky initially developed transformational grammar because of the descriptive inadequacy of grammar based on phrase structure rules. In transformational grammar, the insight that sentences have more than one level of structure is captured in the distinction between deep structure and surface structure. These are both tree structures, which differ in emphasis. Deep structure is considered as the underlying structure of the sentence that conveys the meaning of a sentence. Deep structures are the output of the phrase structure rules and lexical rules; transformations operate on these and gave rise to the surface structure. Surface structure refers to the superficial arrangement of the constituents and reflects the order in which the words are pronounced. David Carrol refers to three arguments regarding the usefulness of the distinction by considering the following sentence as an example. Ex: Flying planes can be dangerous. The ambiguity in this sentence is called deep-structure as it may be paraphrased as, The act of flying planes can be dangerous or Planes that are flying can be dangerous. This type of ambiguity comes from a single surface structure that is derived from two distinct deep structures. The second reason for the distinction is that some pairs of sentences are similar in their phrase structure but not in their underlying structure. Ex: John is easy to please. (2) John is eager to please. (3) The above sentences, when paraphrased reveal their dissimilarity even though they are apparently similar. John is the object of the deep structure in (2) and the deep structure subject (3). The next set of sentences in active and passive voice is distinct in their surface arrangement but similar in their deep structure. Ex: Arlene played the tuba. (active) The tuba was played by Arlene. (passive) So the active and the passive sentences are considered as two manifestation of the same deep structure. These grammatical relationships posit a second level of structure with a new set of rules called transformational rules. The entire deviation of a sentence is known to be a two part process in transformational grammar. In phrase structure the assumed largest syntactic unit, the sentence is progressively expanded by the application of rules into strings of smaller units, terminating with a combination of lexical items and grammatical elements. The phrase structure is explained with labeled tree diagrams and they are said to be inadequate for a full structural exposition. Therefore phrase structure is incapable of explaining the open ended creativity of a natural language. Upon the output of the phrase structure rules transformation rules are applied. These transformational rules involve not the division of the sentences or its parts into smaller parts, but, the alteration or rearrangement of a structure in various ways. Transformation also reflects parts of the speakers intuitive awareness of relations between sentences of different basic types. The associations of active and passive sentences , positive and negative sentences and statements, commands, and questions rests on native speakers recognition of their semantic relatedness, which is expressed by the relatedness of grammatical structure. The phrase structure rules are said to be useful in generating the underlying tree structure which is referred to as deep structures and secondly a sequence of transformational rules is applied to deep structure and the intermediate structures, ultimately generating the surface structure of the sentence. The transformations apply to the entire strings of constituents where as phrase structure rules apply to only one constituent at a time. These transformations are done by adding, deleting or moving the constituents. David Carroll gives a few transformations and explains how they work. One such transformation is called the particle -movement transformation. From the following two sentences know that they mean the same thing: EX: John phoned up the woman. (4) John phoned the woman up. (5) Here the concern is with the placement of the particle up; in these sentences, the particle may occur either just before or just after the noun phrase. Accordingly, we might write two different phrase structure rules for the two instances, the first might write two different phrase structure rules for the two instances, the first conforming to (PS) VP Æ’Â   V + (part) +NP And the second to (PS) VP Æ’Â   V + NP + (part) The problem with this approach is that it lacks descriptive adequacyit does not reveal the similarity of the two sentences. In this approach, the two sentences are derived from two different phase-structure rules. An alternative approach is to assume that the two sentences have the same deep structure and to apply the particle- movement transformation to (4). The transformational rule looks like this: (T1) V + part + NP Æ’Â   V + NP + part It can be noticed that the transformational rule simply moves the last two constituents of the verb phrase. Phrase -structure rules rewrite one constituent into a series of constituents but transformational rules begin with a series of the constituents and transform them. Then he goes on to explain it considering the following sentences: John phoned up the interesting woman. (6) John phoned the interesting woman up. (7) John phoned up the woman with the curly hair. (8) John phoned the woman with the curly hair up. (9) In each case the particle is shifted around the entire NPtwo words in (5), three in (7), and six in (9). The particle movement is defined in terms of constituents, not words. This condition gives transformational grammar tremendous power to apply to an infinite no of NPs. Instead of stating the number of words which varies from sentence to sentence, it is stated that in terms of grammatical structure it is known as structure dependent. One final property of transformational rules is that it may be blocked under certain circumstances. For example, the particle movement transformation does not work with pronouns: (35) John called them up. (36) *John called up them. These restrictions and transformations would be specified in the description of the rule. The rule would operate under specified conditions but would be blocked when these conditions did not apply. The earliest work shows the inadequacy of context free grammar for the analysis of natural languages. In the 1960s, transformational grammarians concentrated on the relationship between syntax and semantics. Transformational grammar explains certain aspects of language such as deep-structure ambiguity and the limitations of the phrase-structure rules. Transformational grammar has evolved over the decades and there were many changes and alternative approaches that gave rise to other new theories on transformation. The influence of Chomskys revolutionary theories on linguistics and his contributions like Syntactic Structures, Aspects of the theory of syntax, stands out as the most significant development which led to the beginning of various other transformations in grammar and linguistics.

Self-destructive Self-expression in The Yellow Wallpaper

Self-destructive Self-expression in The Yellow Wallpaper      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In "The Yellow Wallpaper", a story by Charlotte Perkins Gilman, the conflict centers around the protagonist's inability to maintain her sanity in a society that does not recognize her as an individual. Her husband and brother both exert their own will over hers, forcing her to conform to their pre-set impression an appropriate code of behavior for a sick woman. She has been given a "schedule prescription for each hour in the day; [John] takes all care from me" (155). This code of behavior involves virtually no exertion of her own free-will. Rather, she is expected to passively accept the fact that her own ideas are mere fancy, and only the opinions of the men in her life can be trusted. She is expected to take their own uninformed opinions on her mental state over her own. While "Wallpaper" presents a powerful argument in favor of the feminist movement, the true issue behind the conflict is even more fundamental: the resiliency of human will in the face of social neg ation.    Obviously, it is impossible to maintain a healthy mental state in the oppressive environment surrounding the woman. Throughout the story, the author traces the woman's mental deterioration from a having a normal but weakened sense of self, to a complete inversion of her ego. She slowly inverts her orientation of her place in society, turning away from society completely in order to create a world where she can act on her own volition. In order to represent the stages of her gradually worsening state of mind, the author represents the woman's struggles through a parallel with her view of the wallpaper. The wallpaper is at first a seeming inversion of the woman's mind, but it is gradu... ...leasantville: Reader’s Digest, 1977.   195-206. Golden, Catherine, ed. The Captive Imagination: A Casebook on "The Yellow Wallpaper." New York: Feminist Press, 1992 Kasmer, Lisa. "Charlotte Perkins Gilman's 'The Yellow Wallpaper': A Symptomatic Reading." Literature and Psychology. 36, (1990): 1-15. Kessler, Carol Parley. "Charlotte Perkins Gilman 1860 -1935." Modem American Women Writers. Ed. Elaine Showalter, et al. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1991. 155 -169. Owens, E. Suzanne. â€Å"The Ghostly Double behind the Wallpaper in Charlotte Perkins Gilman’s ‘The Yellow Wallpaper.’† Scharnhorst, Gary. "Gilman." Reference Guide to Short Fiction. Ed. Noelle Watson. Detroit: St. James Press, 1994. 209-210. Wagner-Martin, Linda. "The Yellow Wallpaper." Reference Guide to Short Fiction. Ed. Noelle Watson. Detroit: St. James Press, 1994. 981- 982.   

My First Pocket Money

I had never felt so good in my life. I earned my first pocket money when I was in high school. During school holidays, many students preferred to stay at home or go on holidays, but I wished to experience the school holidays differently this time. As soon as the school holidays started, I began to look for a part-time job. The first day of the holiday, I went to grocery stores and malls to look for a job. I saw a lot of places that wanted to hire part-time sales associates, and I decided to go into a clothing store.The store assistant gave me an application form to fill out. After I completed the application, the store supervisor came in and asked me some questions while she was checking my application. Unfortunately, she immediately declined my application because I was a student. I went to other stores and tried my best to get a job, but every time my application was rejected. I went home feeling disappointed. The next day, I went to the mall located not far away from my house. I a sked about part-time jobs store after store.Finally, I found a restaurant hiring part-time workers for the coming Friday. The restaurant owner was so nice and friendly even knowing I was a student. She told me that she would interview me in 10 minutes. Then she called me go into her office and asked me some basic questions about my education, skills, and availability. She also asked a couple of personal questions about my family and the reason I was looking for a job. After I answered all her questions, she decided to hire me. I was so happy, and before leaving the restaurant, I confirmed the time I would report to work.The following Friday, I arrived at the restaurant thirty minutes earlier. The restaurant owner felt so happy and welcomed me with a smile. After a short meeting with the staff, we began to set up tables, chairs, and decorated for the wedding party. As soon as the wedding party began, I got very busy serving drinks and food to the guests. Some of the guests keep on as king for new plates or new cups, so I needed to walk to the store room many times. After the wedding party ended, we cleaned up tables and helped the other staff who were cleaning the floor and kitchen.Before I went home, the owner paid me fifty dollars. She was very happy with my performance at work. I went home with my first earned pocket money and felt happy. Even though my first part-time job made me tired, I enjoyed it because of the nice boss. I was disappointed in the beginning because my job application was rejected many times, but I did not give up. Finally, I was hired and worked hard as a waitress. This job was only a one-time event for a wedding, but I gained a lot of experience.

Sexual Rape And Sexual Assault - 987 Words

Sexual abuse is a very sensitive and serious issue in United States, yet as well as other counties. Although we all live in a modern civilize world, we hear more and more about this unpleasant affairs happening all the time, and it seem like these problems are only increasing in every country. Therefore, each nation have their own legal definition and law of sexual assault. The following information is an example of a legal definition and statistic of those countries. United States – In the U.S., there just has a new definition of rape which had published on January 1, 2013. According to FBI the new summary of rape is â€Å"Penetration, no matter how slight, of the vagina or anus with any body part or object, or oral penetration by a sex organ of another person, without the consent of the victim.† However, each state has their own explanation of rape and sexual assault, but will have the similar essence. Statistic has shown that 1 out of every 6 American women has been a victim of sexual attempted (14.8% completed rape; 2.8% attempted rape). Which means 17.7 million women have been a victims. About 3% or 1 in 33 men have faced this problem. (https://www.rainn.org/statistics) Iran – This country has a law that â€Å"if a women is raped she is considered an adulteress and faces death by stoning. But if a woman fights off and/or murdered rapist, she can be sentence to death.† (http://www.rozanehmagazine.com/JanFeb04/womeniran.html) Many married women has experienced sexual abuseShow MoreRelatedSexual Rape And Sexual Assault2248 Words   |  9 Pagesby sexual assault and are left, physically and mentally scarred. Sexual abuse can come in many different forms, such as; sexual harassment, stranger assault and a more under reported crime, such as date rape (Types of Sexual Assault). Date rape drugs are used in sexual assault; which is any type of sexual activity that a person does not agree upon (Date Rape Drug: Get the Facts on the Diffe rent Kinds). Anyone can be a victim of sexual assault regardless of their race, culture, gender, sexual orientationRead MoreRape And Sexual Assault And Rape1465 Words   |  6 PagesRape and sexual assault have been a growing epidemic not only in The United States, but all around the world as well. There are many stories based on these issues that also deal with something called date rape drugs. Rape, sexual assault, and date rape drugs are all very closely related and can all occur in the same situation. Date rape drugs can be used to lead to a sexual assault against someone and then possibly rape. These topics are all very serious because â€Å"There is an average of 207,754Read MoreRape And Sexual Assault And Rape955 Words   |  4 PagesRapes and sexual assaults have become issues more and more in our society. Society has become more aware of these types of crimes. For a long time, there was only rape, now it is less broad than just that. Individuals, government bodies an d school have all decided to work together and individually on lessening the crime. Studies have revealed many shocking statistics that have pushed society to act against these crimes. Below, I will be explaining what exactly is rape and sexual assault, how theyRead MoreThe Rape Of Sexual Assault895 Words   |  4 Pagescomprehend the simple meaning of the word no. Records of sexual assault are going through the roof, because of the fact people do not understand that no means no. The main victims of sexual assault are women and statics show one in four women have experienced unwanted sexual content. People come up with numerous excuses of why to blame the woman for the experiences they face, which is wrong and make women question themselves. Women who are sexual assaulted are judged by themselves and by our societyRead MoreSexual Assault, Rape, And Rape1644 Words   |  7 PagesSexual Assault Sexual coercion, sexual assault, and rape are acts of violence with numerous physical and mental health consequences (Helgeson, 430). It is important for future generations to be informed about these topics so that we can it prevent it from continuing. Sexual assaults are a rising problem for female teens on college campuses because of the discrepancies with the no means no policy, reoccurring problems with college fraternities, and today’s â€Å"rape† culture enabling sexual assault. ItRead MoreRape and Sexual Assault1997 Words   |  8 PagesRape and Sexual Assault Rape is a type of sexual assault usually involving sexual intercourse, which is initiated by one or more persons against another person without that person’s consent. The act maybe carried out by force, under threat, or with a person who is incapable with valid consent. 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According to one website, â€Å"Rape victims are doctors, lawyers, nurses, military personnel, cooks, accountants, students- anyone and everyone could be vulnerable to rape or sexual assault,† (â€Å"Rape Myths and Facts,† 2015). Therefore, yes males can be the victims of sexual assault, in fact one out of every 10 rape victims are male, (RAINN, 2016).Read MoreRape And Sexual Assault Rates942 Words   |  4 Pagesand Shields found that sexual assault rates are â€Å"3.1 to 4.4 times higher at the most permissive colleges and universities than their more restrictive counterparts†. The strict enforcing of alcohol bans can reduce sexual assault incidents. Socially regulate d environments such as those found in religious schools do in fact keep the incidents of rape and sexual assault down. However Richardson and Shields points out that this is not because these schools effectively condemned rape, but rather the restrictedRead MoreReporting Rape And Sexual Assault2577 Words   |  11 Pages Reporting Rape/Sexual Assault Prevented By: Psychological Barriers Created by Social Stigmas, Gender Views, and Law Enforcement Bias Victoria Veach University of Alabama Reporting Rape/Sexual Assault Prevented By: Psychological Barriers Created by Social Stigma, Gender Views, and Law Enforcement Bias Sexual assault and rape in common language are usually referred to as the same subject. The word sexual assault is the main category while rape is a specific entity within this category